The big heat

A key thing to avoid is the heat island effect, whereby an area has a higher temperature than its surrounding area because of a greater retention of heat.

Choice of outdoor surfaces, for example, can make a big difference to the temperature of an area, says Oehme.

"If you've got dark asphalt outside as with roads, that really absorbs the heat. It heats up to a hot temperature and then radiates the heat...whereas if you've got highly reflective external paving and plants and transpiration is happening through the plants, you can bring the temperature down quite significantly, it can go by as much as 6-7°C," he says.

The old Bastakia district of Dubai, for example, is noticeably cooler than the streets surrounding it thanks in part to the light coloured stone used for its outdoor surfaces.

The use of plantation can also help to bring down temperatures, adds Oehme.

"The landscaping consumes water and the reason it consumes water is because of the trans evaporation from the plants so the plants use up the water and it goes into the air."

Incorporating shading can also help to lower the temperature by as much as several degrees depending on the location as can inclusion of water bodies.

One regional project that is making a concerted effort to control the climate through traditional cooling methods is Masdar City in Abu Dhabi.

It plans to use a variety of strategies to keep temperatures down, including orientation of sites to capture winds from the sea and desert, the inclusion of shaded walkways and narrow streets, and significant use of green canopies.

Creation of a microclimate

Creation of a microclimate is another way that designers can help to extend use of the outdoor space.

"We can create spaces with tremendous microclimates," says Richard Smith, technical director of Atkins in the Middle East.

Orientation, planting, spillage of cold air from building, there is a whole army of measures that we use to modify the external climate of an outdoor space.

Create a hard square with concrete paviours and it will reflect heat and make a harsh uncomfortable environment that feels horrendous.

Go to an oasis where there is water and shade and you will feel a lot better. We can do that in the external environment.

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